Muscle Dysmorphia: A Comparison Between Competitive Bodybuilders and Fitness Practitioners
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.6000/1929-5634.2012.01.01.2Keywords:
Muscle Dysmorphia, drive for muscularity, bodybuilding, anabolic steroids, survey descriptive studyAbstract
Objective: The primary aim of this study was to investigate the features of Muscle Dysmorphia and other body image-related concerns in a sample of competitive male bodybuilders. Method: We screened 217 male athletes, 119 bodybuilders and 98 fitness practitioners, recruited in 12 gymnasiums in Southern Italy, by means of an ad hoc socio-demographic schedule, the Muscle Dysmorphia Inventory (MDI) and the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale (MASS).
Results: Twenty one of the bodybuilders (17.6%) show high levels of preoccupation and dissatisfaction with their muscularity, 45.4% (N=54) a marked dependence on bodybuilding; 35.3% (N=42) follow a high-protein diet and 35.3% (N=42) used vitamin supplements to improve their weightlifting performances and favor post-training physical recovery. In addition, forty-three (36.1%) also report use of substance while nine subjects (7.6%) declare to avoid situations in which their body might be seen or manifest high levels of distress when this happens. The ANCOVA (Exercise Frequency per Week as a covariate) results indicate that bodybuilders, compared to fitness practitioners, report significant elevations in all measures. Moreover, considering only the bodybuilders sample, who report a regular use of substance scored higher in Dietary Behavior, Body size-symmetry, Physique Protection, Supplement Use MDI scales and on Body building Dependence, Muscle Checking and Injury MASS subscales.
Discussion: Our findings seem to suggest that the practice of the bodybuilding is associated to the proposed criteria of muscle dysmorphia if compared with regular fitness practice. In particular, we found that a regular use of substance was associated with greater dissatisfaction with muscularity.
References
Pope HG Jr, Katz DL, Hudson JI. Anorexia nervosa and “reverse anorexia” among 108 bodybuilders. Compr Psychiatry 1993; 34: 406-409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-440X(93)90066-D DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-440X(93)90066-D
Pope HG Jr, Gruber AJ, Choi P, Olivardia R, Phillips KA. Muscle Dysmorphia. An underrecognized form of body dysmorphic disorder. Psychosomatics 1997; 38: 548-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(97)71400-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(97)71400-2
Hildebrandt T, Schlundt D, Langenbucher J, Chung T. Presence of muscle dysmorphia symptomology among male weightlifters. Compr Psychiatry 2006; 47: 127-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.06.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.06.001
Phillips KA, O’ Sullivan RL, Pope HG Jr. Muscle Dysmorphia. J Clin Psychiatry 1997; 58: 361. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v58n0806a DOI: https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v58n0806a
Kleiner SM, Bazzarre TL, Ainsworth BE. Nutritional status of nationally ranked elite bodybuilders. Int J Sport Nutr 1994; 4: 54-69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsn.4.1.54
Pope HG, Katz DL. Psychiatric & medical effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid use: A controlled study of 160 athletes. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51: 375-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950050035004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950050035004
Rohman L. The relationship between anabolic androgenic steroids and muscle dysmorphia: a review. Eat Disord 2009; 17: 187-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10640260902848477 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10640260902848477
Olivardia R, Pope HG Jr, Hudson, JI. Muscle dysmorphia in male weightlifters: A case – control study. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1291-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1291 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1291
Blouin AG, Goldfield GS. Body image and steroid use in male bodybuilders. Int J Eat Disord 1995; 18: 159-65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X(199509)18:2<159::AID-EAT2260180208>3.0.CO;2-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X(199509)18:2<159::AID-EAT2260180208>3.0.CO;2-3
Olivardia R. Mirror, mirror on the wall, who’s the largest of them all? The features and phenomenology of muscle dysmorphia. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2001; 9: 254-59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/hrp.9.5.254.259
Pope HG Jr, Olivardia R, Phillips K. The Adonis Complex: The Secret Crisis of Male Body Obsession. New York: Free Press 2000.
Baghurst T, Lirgg C. Characteristics of muscle dysmorphia in male football, weight training, and competitive natural and non-natural bodybuilding samples. Body Image 2009; 6: 221-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.03.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.03.002
Mosley PE. Bigorexia: bodybuilding and muscle dysmorphia. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2009; 17: 191-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/erv.897 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.897
Lantz CD, Rhea DJ, Cornelius AE. Muscle Dysmorphia in elite – level power lifters and Bodybuilders: a test of differences within a conceptual model. J Strength Cond Res 2002; 16: 649-55. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1519/00124278-200211000-00026
Mangweth B, Pope HG Jr, Kemmler G, et al. Body image and psychopathology in male bodybuilders. Psychother Psychosom 2001; 70: 38-43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000056223 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000056223
Babusa B, Túry F. Muscle dysmorphia in Hungarian non-competitive male bodybuilders. Eat Weight Disord 2012; 17: 49-53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03325327
Davis C, Scott-Robertson L. A psychological comparison of females with anorexia nervosa & competitive male bodybuilders: body shape ideals in the extreme. Eat Behav 2000; 1: 33-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1471-0153(00)00007-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1471-0153(00)00007-6
Goldfield GS, Blouin AG, Woodside DB. Body image, binge eating and bulimia nervosa in male bodybuilders. Can J Psychiatry 2006; 51: 160-68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370605100306
McFarland MB, Kaminski PL. Men, muscles, and mood: the relationship between self-concept, dysphoria, and body image disturbances. Eat Behav 2009; 10: 68-70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2008.10.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2008.10.007
Lamanna J, Grieve FG, Derryberry WP, Hakman M, McClure A. Antecedents of eating disorders and muscle dysmorphia in a non-clinical sample. Eat Weight Disord 2010; 15: 23-33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03325277
Murray SB, Rieger E, Touyz SW, De la Garza García Lic Y. Muscle dysmorphia and the DSM-V conundrum: where does it belong? A review paper. Int J Eat Disord 2010; 43: 483-91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eat.20828 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20828
Murray SB, Maguire S, Russell J, Touyz SW. The emotional regulatory features of bulimic episodes and compulsive exercise in muscle dysmorphia: a case report. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2012; 20: 68-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/erv.1088 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.1088
Murray SB, Rieger E, Hildebrandt T, et al. A comparison of eating, exercise, shape, and weight related symptomatology in males with muscle dysmorphia and anorexia nervosa. Body Image 2012; 9: 193-200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.01.008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.01.008
Pope CG, Pope HG, Menard W, Fay C, Olivardia R, Phillips KA. Clinical features of muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image 2005; 2: 395-400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.09.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.09.001
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: Text revision (4th ed). Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing 2000.
Mayville SB, Williamson DA, White MA, Netemeyer RG, Drab DL. Development of the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale: a self – report measure for the assessment of Muscle Dysmorphia symptoms. Assessment 2002; 9: 351-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073191102238156 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191102238156
Kleiner SM, Bazzarre TL, Litchford MD. Metabolic profiles, diet and health practices of championship male and female bodybuilders. J Am Diet Assoc 1990; 90: 962-67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(21)01671-0
Brill JB, Keane MW. Supplementation patterns of competitive male and female bodybuilders. Int J Sport Nutr 1994; 4: 398-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsn.4.4.398
Kanayama G, Barry S, Hudson JI, Pope HG Jr. Body image and attitudes toward male roles in anabolic-androgenic steroid users. Am J Psychiatry 2006; 163: 697-703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.697 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.4.697
Pope HG Jr, Kanayama G, Hudson JI. Risk factors for illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid use in male weightlifters: a cross-sectional cohort study. Biol Psychiatry 2012; 71: 254-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.06.024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.06.024
Cotrufo P. Anoressia del sessuale femminile. Dal caos alla costituzione del limite. Milano: Franco Angeli 2005.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Policy for Journals/Articles with Open Access
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post links to their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work
Policy for Journals / Manuscript with Paid Access
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Publisher retain copyright .
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post links to their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work .
